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	<title>Comments on: We Have Merit Pay at the Collegiate Level</title>
	<atom:link href="http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml" />
	<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html</link>
	<description>where orders emerge</description>
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		<title>By: Mike in Texas</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175881</link>
		<dc:creator>Mike in Texas</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Wed, 05 Aug 2009 12:31:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175881</guid>
		<description>Brotio,

A cut in pay would motivate me to seek another job.  I DO have children, a house and a crippling need for food.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Brotio,</p>
<p>A cut in pay would motivate me to seek another job.  I DO have children, a house and a crippling need for food.</p>
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		<title>By: Economist nails illogic on teacher pay &#171; Schools for Tomorrow - Education News Colorado - Colorado&#8217;s Comprehensive Site for Education News</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-54817</link>
		<dc:creator>Economist nails illogic on teacher pay &#171; Schools for Tomorrow - Education News Colorado - Colorado&#8217;s Comprehensive Site for Education News</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 21:19:44 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-54817</guid>
		<description>[...] The letter (H/T Joanne Jacobs) was written by George Mason University&#8217;s Don Boudreaux, and it reads with all the logic and dry wit of an economist, yet adding more panache than one might typically expect from the &#8220;dismal&#8221; science. Here&#8217;s the key excerpt: In a letter in today’s Washington Post, former Fairfax County Federation of Teachers president Rick Nelson insists that merit pay for teachers will not result in better teaching. In other words, the prospect of higher pay will not prompt teachers to perform better in the classroom. Briefly, teachers don’t respond to monetary incentives, or monetary incentives are so easy to game that using such incentives causes more harm than benefit. [...]</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>[...] The letter (H/T Joanne Jacobs) was written by George Mason University&#8217;s Don Boudreaux, and it reads with all the logic and dry wit of an economist, yet adding more panache than one might typically expect from the &#8220;dismal&#8221; science. Here&#8217;s the key excerpt: In a letter in today’s Washington Post, former Fairfax County Federation of Teachers president Rick Nelson insists that merit pay for teachers will not result in better teaching. In other words, the prospect of higher pay will not prompt teachers to perform better in the classroom. Briefly, teachers don’t respond to monetary incentives, or monetary incentives are so easy to game that using such incentives causes more harm than benefit. [...]</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175850</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 21:12:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175850</guid>
		<description>Uh, had you not taken Burk Files to task for &lt;I&gt;moran&lt;/I&gt; I probably would have let this pass:

&lt;I&gt;It had not the slightest effect on how a teach, I do the best I can all the time.&lt;/I&gt;


&lt;I&gt;My beef with Don is that as an economist he believes everyone is motivated by money.&lt;/I&gt;

How much will your pay have to be cut before you &lt;B&gt;are&lt;/B&gt; motivated by money?</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Uh, had you not taken Burk Files to task for <i>moran</i> I probably would have let this pass:</p>
<p><i>It had not the slightest effect on how a teach, I do the best I can all the time.</i></p>
<p><i>My beef with Don is that as an economist he believes everyone is motivated by money.</i></p>
<p>How much will your pay have to be cut before you <b>are</b> motivated by money?</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175846</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 20:54:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175846</guid>
		<description>Mike,

I realized after the fact that you were probably not talking about what I had written.  Sorry.

  Texas has a lot of things in line better than elsewhere in the nation; I&#039;m glad that unions are more hamstrung then elsewhere.  This naturally makes them less destructive.



</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Mike,</p>
<p>I realized after the fact that you were probably not talking about what I had written.  Sorry.</p>
<p>  Texas has a lot of things in line better than elsewhere in the nation; I&#8217;m glad that unions are more hamstrung then elsewhere.  This naturally makes them less destructive.</p>
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		<title>By: Mike in Texas</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175840</link>
		<dc:creator>Mike in Texas</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 19:50:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175840</guid>
		<description>Indianjim,

Here in Texas teachers&#039; unions are very different, since teachers cannot, by law, strike or collective bargain.  Therefore the unions are little more than insurance and information providers.

AND, as a classroom teacher of 17 years experience I know a little bit about teachers and education. I even work in a school that has a merit pay scheme and got a nice bonus check.  It had not the slightest effect on how a teach, I do the best I can all the time.  My beef with Don is that as an economist he believes everyone is motivated by money.

BTW, the idiotic statements I was referring to were not yours but Hayek&#039;s belief we should cut teacher pay.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Indianjim,</p>
<p>Here in Texas teachers&#8217; unions are very different, since teachers cannot, by law, strike or collective bargain.  Therefore the unions are little more than insurance and information providers.</p>
<p>AND, as a classroom teacher of 17 years experience I know a little bit about teachers and education. I even work in a school that has a merit pay scheme and got a nice bonus check.  It had not the slightest effect on how a teach, I do the best I can all the time.  My beef with Don is that as an economist he believes everyone is motivated by money.</p>
<p>BTW, the idiotic statements I was referring to were not yours but Hayek&#8217;s belief we should cut teacher pay.</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175828</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 17:46:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175828</guid>
		<description>Thanks; yes, there are always problems in this world of scarcity.  As Thomas Sowell, I think it was, put it: &quot;There are no solutions, only tradeoffs.&quot;</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Thanks; yes, there are always problems in this world of scarcity.  As Thomas Sowell, I think it was, put it: &#8220;There are no solutions, only tradeoffs.&#8221;</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175822</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 16:43:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175822</guid>
		<description>Here is a link to a WSJ article yesterday on the role of the teacher&#039;s union in pay and education quality:

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204619004574318393190278188.html

If anyone believes that Don is fundamentally wrong in his comments, he/she is a &quot;true believer&quot; who cannot be bothered with evidence or rational discourse. Another fact is that in may public school systems, teachers of all disciplines are on the SAME salary schedule.  So not only is merit not rewarded, but specialty in areas of high demand and/or low supply are not differentially rewarded; afterall that wouldn&#039;t be fair and it wouldn&#039;t foster union solidarity. Whatever!</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Here is a link to a WSJ article yesterday on the role of the teacher&#8217;s union in pay and education quality:</p>
<p><a href="http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204619004574318393190278188.html" rel="nofollow">http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970204619004574318393190278188.html</a></p>
<p>If anyone believes that Don is fundamentally wrong in his comments, he/she is a &#8220;true believer&#8221; who cannot be bothered with evidence or rational discourse. Another fact is that in may public school systems, teachers of all disciplines are on the SAME salary schedule.  So not only is merit not rewarded, but specialty in areas of high demand and/or low supply are not differentially rewarded; afterall that wouldn&#8217;t be fair and it wouldn&#8217;t foster union solidarity. Whatever!</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175821</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 16:34:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175821</guid>
		<description>MERIT should be objective not subjective.  The subjective part, as you lived through, leads to perversions.   What gets incentivized gets done, and the teachers were incentivized not to teach but to &quot;suck up&quot;.  On the other hand if you have standardized tests you are accused to teaching to the tests.  I have not seen a workable model yet, except for seeking and screening for the right attitude in the instructors and the students.  This too creates another set of problems...

Good Luck on this matter.

Burke</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>MERIT should be objective not subjective.  The subjective part, as you lived through, leads to perversions.   What gets incentivized gets done, and the teachers were incentivized not to teach but to &#8220;suck up&#8221;.  On the other hand if you have standardized tests you are accused to teaching to the tests.  I have not seen a workable model yet, except for seeking and screening for the right attitude in the instructors and the students.  This too creates another set of problems&#8230;</p>
<p>Good Luck on this matter.</p>
<p>Burke</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175818</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 16:29:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175818</guid>
		<description>You are correct.  I use voice recognition software due to an injury to my right hand.  The software, after some research, appears to have a default that does not allow for harsh words.  You recognized one error, I have found a few more such as ash pole and truck.  Dragonware has not responded to my calls on these matters as of yet.  Censored without even being naughty!

Burke</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>You are correct.  I use voice recognition software due to an injury to my right hand.  The software, after some research, appears to have a default that does not allow for harsh words.  You recognized one error, I have found a few more such as ash pole and truck.  Dragonware has not responded to my calls on these matters as of yet.  Censored without even being naughty!</p>
<p>Burke</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175812</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 15:44:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175812</guid>
		<description>Mike in Texas,

I have what Hayek recognized (and arrogant scientism is blind to) is a highly under-rated form of knowledge: the knowledge of particular place and circumstance.  I have worked at an Indiana university for 27 years and live within walking distance from the campus; I know my institution intimately from may angles as I have not only taught undergraduate and graduate students, but I have done grant work, I have done committee work, I have done administrative work, I have been involved in the university governance system, etc. etc.  If you are in Texas, as your blog handle suggests, and if you have never been to my fair city in Indiana, and if you have never worked at my university for an extended period, then YOU SIR are at an impossible knowledge disadvantage, your fatuousity notwithstanding.  

My statements are neither &quot;idiotic&quot; nor are they things I &quot;know nothing about.&quot;  Indeed SIR, I know exactly that of which I speak.  Hayek&#039;s point about the importance of the knowledge of particular place and circumstance is something that you should educate yourself about, it will save you looking the fool next time you are tempted by &quot;The Pretense of Knowledge.&quot;  To that end, I suggest your read for example his Nobel address via the link below:

http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1974/hayek-lecture.html</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Mike in Texas,</p>
<p>I have what Hayek recognized (and arrogant scientism is blind to) is a highly under-rated form of knowledge: the knowledge of particular place and circumstance.  I have worked at an Indiana university for 27 years and live within walking distance from the campus; I know my institution intimately from may angles as I have not only taught undergraduate and graduate students, but I have done grant work, I have done committee work, I have done administrative work, I have been involved in the university governance system, etc. etc.  If you are in Texas, as your blog handle suggests, and if you have never been to my fair city in Indiana, and if you have never worked at my university for an extended period, then YOU SIR are at an impossible knowledge disadvantage, your fatuousity notwithstanding.  </p>
<p>My statements are neither &#8220;idiotic&#8221; nor are they things I &#8220;know nothing about.&#8221;  Indeed SIR, I know exactly that of which I speak.  Hayek&#8217;s point about the importance of the knowledge of particular place and circumstance is something that you should educate yourself about, it will save you looking the fool next time you are tempted by &#8220;The Pretense of Knowledge.&#8221;  To that end, I suggest your read for example his Nobel address via the link below:</p>
<p><a href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1974/hayek-lecture.html" rel="nofollow">http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1974/hayek-lecture.html</a></p>
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		<title>By: Mike in Texas</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175799</link>
		<dc:creator>Mike in Texas</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 14:27:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175799</guid>
		<description>You sir, should stick to teaching economics and quit making idiotic statements about things you know nothing about.

OR, find yourself a school that&#039;s willing to try your little experiment and enroll YOUR children.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>You sir, should stick to teaching economics and quit making idiotic statements about things you know nothing about.</p>
<p>OR, find yourself a school that&#8217;s willing to try your little experiment and enroll YOUR children.</p>
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		<title>By: Mike in Texas</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175797</link>
		<dc:creator>Mike in Texas</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 14:22:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175797</guid>
		<description>Uh, it&#039;s spelled &quot;moron&quot; not &quot;moran&quot;</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Uh, it&#8217;s spelled &#8220;moron&#8221; not &#8220;moran&#8221;</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175786</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 11:49:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175786</guid>
		<description>
I only question what is merit in education.  Do you know it and how to measure it?      



</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>I only question what is merit in education.  Do you know it and how to measure it?</p>
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		<title>By: If teachers aren&#8217;t motivated by money . . . at Joanne Jacobs</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-54746</link>
		<dc:creator>If teachers aren&#8217;t motivated by money . . . at Joanne Jacobs</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 11:23:02 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-54746</guid>
		<description>[...] merit pay doesn&#8217;t motivate teachers, then it makes sense to cut teacher pay, argues Cafe Hayek&#8217;s Don Boudreaux, a George Mason econ prof, in response to a letter in the [...]</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>[...] merit pay doesn&#8217;t motivate teachers, then it makes sense to cut teacher pay, argues Cafe Hayek&#8217;s Don Boudreaux, a George Mason econ prof, in response to a letter in the [...]</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175782</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Tue, 04 Aug 2009 10:23:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175782</guid>
		<description>I&#039;ll piggy-back on brotio&#039;s post and go farther.

My spring experience dovetails into the information I have been reading for years now, and that which I learned as a senior petty officer, training, counseling, and work, that being that nothing is accomplished without discipline.

Any school can be a good and productive school if it can maintain and enforce discipline. Private schools can do so far better than public schools. 

The two advantages that I see in a private school is that they can cull their teachers on a regular basis to hire and keep only those that actually are capable, and they can enforce standards that keep the students in learning mode and not distracted by cool competitions, clothing styles, and beauty competitions.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>I&#8217;ll piggy-back on brotio&#8217;s post and go farther.</p>
<p>My spring experience dovetails into the information I have been reading for years now, and that which I learned as a senior petty officer, training, counseling, and work, that being that nothing is accomplished without discipline.</p>
<p>Any school can be a good and productive school if it can maintain and enforce discipline. Private schools can do so far better than public schools. </p>
<p>The two advantages that I see in a private school is that they can cull their teachers on a regular basis to hire and keep only those that actually are capable, and they can enforce standards that keep the students in learning mode and not distracted by cool competitions, clothing styles, and beauty competitions.</p>
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		<title>By: Incentives Matter. Or Not? &#124; Economist Blog</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-54688</link>
		<dc:creator>Incentives Matter. Or Not? &#124; Economist Blog</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 03 Aug 2009 23:03:48 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-54688</guid>
		<description>[...] Don Boudreaux argues below that if teachers don&#8217;t respond positively to monetary incentives (merit pay), then they likewise shouldn&#8217;t respond negatively to pay cuts, and we can therefore save millions and billions of dollars by cutting teachers&#8217; salaries? [...]</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>[...] Don Boudreaux argues below that if teachers don&#8217;t respond positively to monetary incentives (merit pay), then they likewise shouldn&#8217;t respond negatively to pay cuts, and we can therefore save millions and billions of dollars by cutting teachers&#8217; salaries? [...]</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175723</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 03 Aug 2009 22:15:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175723</guid>
		<description>LMAO!</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>LMAO!</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175721</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 03 Aug 2009 22:11:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175721</guid>
		<description>Lizzaroni,

I wouldn&#039;t go so far as to call any public school &lt;I&gt;good&lt;/I&gt;. They&#039;re just better than poorer schools. 

I think giving parents vouchers would improve education for all students.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Lizzaroni,</p>
<p>I wouldn&#8217;t go so far as to call any public school <i>good</i>. They&#8217;re just better than poorer schools. </p>
<p>I think giving parents vouchers would improve education for all students.</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175705</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 03 Aug 2009 19:41:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175705</guid>
		<description>Yes, I didn&#039;t understand that the employee pays for the training during the training period. Employers could also promise pay raises to employees obtaining specific training at their own expense. It amounts to the same thing.

The scheme is possible, but it doesn&#039;t address an employee who needs credit to increase his value. The &quot;equity&quot; approach can be beneficial to adults as well as to children.
</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Yes, I didn&#8217;t understand that the employee pays for the training during the training period. Employers could also promise pay raises to employees obtaining specific training at their own expense. It amounts to the same thing.</p>
<p>The scheme is possible, but it doesn&#8217;t address an employee who needs credit to increase his value. The &#8220;equity&#8221; approach can be beneficial to adults as well as to children.</p>
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		<title>By: Anonymous</title>
		<link>http://cafehayek.com/2009/08/we-have-merit-pay-at-the-collegiate-level.html/comment-page-1#comment-175700</link>
		<dc:creator>Anonymous</dc:creator>
		<pubDate>Mon, 03 Aug 2009 18:02:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://cafehayek.com/?p=5614#comment-175700</guid>
		<description>Martin,

I think you have missed the point, maybe I wasn&#039;t explicit enough.  Walter Oi has a fabulous paper on labor as a quasi-fixed factor (JPE, 1962)  I suggest you read it, if you have not already.  

In case you have not let me give an overview: Oi&#039;s theory makes several predictions: 1) the workers receiving &quot;firm general&quot; training will &quot;pay&quot; for ALL of their training costs in the form of lower waged during the training period; 2) workers receiving &quot;firm specific&quot; training will pay for only part of the cost of training in terms of the lowering of wages during training.  Walter provides a test of his theory in the paper, showing that workers with &quot;firm specific training&quot; are less likely to be laid off during recessions than workers with &quot;firm general training&quot;.</description>
		<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Martin,</p>
<p>I think you have missed the point, maybe I wasn&#8217;t explicit enough.  Walter Oi has a fabulous paper on labor as a quasi-fixed factor (JPE, 1962)  I suggest you read it, if you have not already.  </p>
<p>In case you have not let me give an overview: Oi&#8217;s theory makes several predictions: 1) the workers receiving &#8220;firm general&#8221; training will &#8220;pay&#8221; for ALL of their training costs in the form of lower waged during the training period; 2) workers receiving &#8220;firm specific&#8221; training will pay for only part of the cost of training in terms of the lowering of wages during training.  Walter provides a test of his theory in the paper, showing that workers with &#8220;firm specific training&#8221; are less likely to be laid off during recessions than workers with &#8220;firm general training&#8221;.</p>
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